Topics
- DISCOVER THE LATEST IN TECH POLICY
  
  Golden State Antitrust Warriors: The Costs of Balkanizing U.S. Competition Policy
  April 2, 2026
  
  The FCC Got the Router Ban Wrong. It Knew Better.
  March 27, 2026
  
  The Administration Is Already Governing AI Development. It Just Doesn’t Have a Strategy.
  March 25, 2026
  
  EXPLORE OUR RESEARCH TOPICS
  
  Antitrust and Competition
  
  Artificial Intelligence
  
  Broadband
  
  Content Moderation
  
  Economics and Methods
  
  Free Speech
  
  Evidence-Based Policy
  
  Intellectual Property
  
  Privacy and Security
  
  Miscellaneous
  
  All Publications
  All Authors
Podcast
Aspen Forum
Events
Blog
About

Posts by Jay P. Kesan

Event Multimedia

Patent Assertion Entity (PAE) Lawsuits: An Empirical Study of Settlement Behavior and Litigation Outcomes

Jay P. Kesan and Christopher A. Cotropia

Attachments Patent Assertion Entity (PAE) Lawsuits: An Empirical Study of Settlement Behavior and Litigation Outcomes

February 12, 2015

Refine Your Search

Get The Latest In Your Inbox

Sign Up for Updates

img:is([sizes=auto i],[sizes^="auto," i]){contain-intrinsic-size:3000px 1500px}img.wp-smiley,img.emoji{display:inline !important;border:none !important;box-shadow:none !important;height:1em !important;width:1em !important;margin:0 .07em !important;vertical-align:-.1em !important;background:none !important;padding:0 !important}.wp-block-button__link{color:#fff;background-color:#32373c;border-radius:9999px;box-shadow:none;text-decoration:none;padding:calc(.667em + 2px) calc(1.333em + 2px);font-size:1.125em}.wp-block-file__button{background:#32373c;color:#fff;text-decoration:none}:root{--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--square:1;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--4-3:4/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-4:3/4;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-2:3/2;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--2-3:2/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--16-9:16/9;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--9-16:9/16;--wp--preset--color--black:#000;--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray:#abb8c3;--wp--preset--color--white:#fff;--wp--preset--color--pale-pink:#f78da7;--wp--preset--color--vivid-red:#cf2e2e;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange:#ff6900;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber:#fcb900;--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan:#7bdcb5;--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan:#00d084;--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue:#8ed1fc;--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue:#0693e3;--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple:#9b51e0;--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple:linear-gradient(135deg,#0693e3 0%,#9b51e0 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan:linear-gradient(135deg,#7adcb4 0%,#00d082 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange:linear-gradient(135deg,#fcb900 0%,#ff6900 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red:linear-gradient(135deg,#ff6900 0%,#cf2e2e 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray:linear-gradient(135deg,#eee 0%,#a9b8c3 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum:linear-gradient(135deg,#4aeadc 0%,#9778d1 20%,#cf2aba 40%,#ee2c82 60%,#fb6962 80%,#fef84c 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple:linear-gradient(135deg,#ffceec 0%,#9896f0 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux:linear-gradient(135deg,#fecda5 0%,#fe2d2d 50%,#6b003e 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk:linear-gradient(135deg,#ffcb70 0%,#c751c0 50%,#4158d0 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean:linear-gradient(135deg,#fff5cb 0%,#b6e3d4 50%,#33a7b5 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass:linear-gradient(135deg,#caf880 0%,#71ce7e 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--midnight:linear-gradient(135deg,#020381 0%,#2874fc 100%);--wp--preset--font-size--small:13px;--wp--preset--font-size--medium:20px;--wp--preset--font-size--large:36px;--wp--preset--font-size--x-large:42px;--wp--preset--spacing--20:.44rem;--wp--preset--spacing--30:.67rem;--wp--preset--spacing--40:1rem;--wp--preset--spacing--50:1.5rem;--wp--preset--spacing--60:2.25rem;--wp--preset--spacing--70:3.38rem;--wp--preset--spacing--80:5.06rem;--wp--preset--shadow--natural:6px 6px 9px rgba(0,0,0,.2);--wp--preset--shadow--deep:12px 12px 50px rgba(0,0,0,.4);--wp--preset--shadow--sharp:6px 6px 0px rgba(0,0,0,.2);--wp--preset--shadow--outlined:6px 6px 0px -3px #fff,6px 6px #000;--wp--preset--shadow--crisp:6px 6px 0px #000}:where(.is-layout-flex){gap:.5em}:where(.is-layout-grid){gap:.5em}body .is-layout-flex{display:flex}.is-layout-flex{flex-wrap:wrap;align-items:center}.is-layout-flex > :is(*, div){margin:0}body .is-layout-grid{display:grid}.is-layout-grid > :is(*, div){margin:0}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap:2em}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap:2em}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap:1.25em}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap:1.25em}.has-black-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important}.has-white-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important}.has-pale-pink-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important}.has-vivid-red-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important}.has-light-green-cyan-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important}.has-vivid-green-cyan-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important}.has-pale-cyan-blue-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important}.has-vivid-purple-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important}.has-black-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important}.has-white-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important}.has-pale-pink-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important}.has-vivid-red-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important}.has-light-green-cyan-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important}.has-vivid-green-cyan-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important}.has-pale-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important}.has-vivid-purple-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important}.has-black-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important}.has-white-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important}.has-pale-pink-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important}.has-vivid-red-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important}.has-light-green-cyan-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important}.has-vivid-green-cyan-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important}.has-pale-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important}.has-vivid-purple-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple) !important}.has-light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan) !important}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange) !important}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red) !important}.has-very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray) !important}.has-cool-to-warm-spectrum-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum) !important}.has-blush-light-purple-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple) !important}.has-blush-bordeaux-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux) !important}.has-luminous-dusk-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk) !important}.has-pale-ocean-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean) !important}.has-electric-grass-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass) !important}.has-midnight-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--midnight) !important}.has-small-font-size{font-size:var(--wp--preset--font-size--small) !important}.has-medium-font-size{font-size:var(--wp--preset--font-size--medium) !important}.has-large-font-size{font-size:var(--wp--preset--font-size--large) !important}.has-x-large-font-size{font-size:var(--wp--preset--font-size--x-large) !important}.ancr-pos-bottom #gform_wrapper_1.gform_wrapper{display:flex;align-items:center}.ancr-pos-bottom #gform_wrapper_1.gform_wrapper .gform_heading{width:320px}.ancr-pos-bottom #gform_wrapper_1.gform_wrapper .gform_heading h2{margin-bottom:.75rem}.ancr-pos-bottom #gform_wrapper_1.gform_wrapper .gform_body #field_submit{display:grid}@media (max-width: 1160px){.ancr-pos-bottom #gform_wrapper_1.gform_wrapper{flex-flow:wrap}.ancr-pos-bottom #gform_wrapper_1.gform_wrapper #field_1_1{grid-column:span 9}}@media (max-width: 640px){.ancr-pos-bottom #gform_wrapper_1.gform_wrapper #gform_1{width:94%}.ancr-pos-bottom #gform_wrapper_1.gform_wrapper #field_1_1{grid-column:span 12}}.pp-podcast{opacity:0}.molongui-disabled-link{border-bottom:none !important;text-decoration:none !important;color:inherit !important;cursor:inherit !important}.molongui-disabled-link:hover,.molongui-disabled-link:hover span{border-bottom:none !important;text-decoration:none !important;color:inherit !important;cursor:inherit !important}.admin-bar .progress-container-top{background:unset;height:12px}.progress-container-top{background:unset;height:12px}.progress-container-bottom{background:unset;height:12px}.progress-bar{background:#fc0d0d;height:12px;width:0%}.fas{font-family:"fontawesome";font-weight:900}.far{font-family:"fontawesome";font-weight:400}.fal{font-family:"fontawesome";font-weight:300}.fad{font-family:"Font Awesome 5 Duotone";font-weight:900}.fad{position:relative}.fad:before{position:absolute}.fad:after{opacity:.4}.fab{font-family:"Font Awesome 5 Brands";font-weight:400}.material-icons{font-family:"Material Icons";font-weight:400}.l-subheader.at_middle,.l-subheader.at_middle .w-dropdown-list,.l-subheader.at_middle .type_mobile .w-nav-list.level_1{background:var(--color-alt-content-bg);color:var(--color-header-middle-text)}.no-touch .l-subheader.at_middle a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent .l-subheader.at_middle .w-dropdown.opened a:hover{color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .l-subheader.at_middle{background:var(--color-header-transparent-bg);color:#fff}.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-cart-link:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-text a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-html a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-nav>a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-menu a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-search>a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-socials.shape_none.color_text a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-socials.shape_none.color_link a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-dropdown a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .type_desktop .menu-item.level_1.opened>a,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .type_desktop .menu-item.level_1:hover>a{color:var(--color-header-transparent-text-hover)}.header_ver .l-header{background:var(--color-alt-content-bg);color:var(--color-header-middle-text)}@media (min-width:1281px){.hidden_for_default{display:none !important}.l-subheader.at_top{display:none}.l-subheader.at_bottom{display:none}.l-header{position:relative;z-index:111}.l-subheader{margin:0 auto}.l-subheader-h{display:flex;align-items:center;position:relative;margin:0 auto;max-width:var(--site-content-width,1200px);height:inherit}.w-header-show{display:none}.l-header.pos_fixed{position:fixed;left:var(--site-outline-width,0);right:var(--site-outline-width,0)}.l-header.pos_fixed:not(.notransition) .l-subheader{transition-property:transform,background,box-shadow,line-height,height,visibility;transition-duration:.3s;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(.78,.13,.15,.86)}.headerinpos_bottom.sticky_first_section .l-header.pos_fixed{position:fixed !important}.header_hor .l-header.sticky_auto_hide{transition:margin .3s cubic-bezier(.78,.13,.15,.86) .1s}.header_hor .l-header.sticky_auto_hide.down{margin-top:calc(-1.1 * var(--header-sticky-height,0px))}.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .l-subheader{box-shadow:none !important;background:none}.l-header.bg_transparent~.l-main .l-section.width_full.height_auto:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important;padding-bottom:0 !important}.l-header.pos_static.bg_transparent{position:absolute;left:var(--site-outline-width,0);right:var(--site-outline-width,0)}.l-subheader.width_full .l-subheader-h{max-width:none !important}.l-header.shadow_thin .l-subheader.at_middle,.l-header.shadow_thin .l-subheader.at_bottom{box-shadow:0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,.08)}.l-header.shadow_wide .l-subheader.at_middle,.l-header.shadow_wide .l-subheader.at_bottom{box-shadow:0 3px 5px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.1),0 2px 1px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.05)}.header_hor .l-subheader-cell>.w-cart{margin-left:0;margin-right:0}:root{--header-height:80px;--header-sticky-height:50px}.l-header:before{content:"80"}.l-header.sticky:before{content:"50"}.l-subheader.at_top{line-height:30px;height:30px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_top{line-height:30px;height:30px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-subheader.at_middle{line-height:80px;height:80px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_middle{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-subheader.at_bottom{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_bottom{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.headerinpos_above .l-header.pos_fixed{overflow:hidden;transition:transform .3s;transform:translate3d(0,-100%,0)}.headerinpos_above .l-header.pos_fixed.sticky{overflow:visible;transform:none}.headerinpos_above .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-section>.l-section-h,.headerinpos_above .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main .l-section:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important}.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky){position:absolute;top:100%}.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main>.l-section:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important}.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main .l-section.full_height:nth-of-type(2){min-height:100vh}.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main>.l-section:nth-of-type(2)>.l-section-h{padding-top:var(--header-height)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky){position:absolute;top:100vh}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main>.l-section:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main>.l-section:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-bottom:var(--header-height)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed.bg_transparent~.l-main .l-section.valign_center:not(.height_auto):first-of-type>.l-section-h{top:calc(var(--header-height) / 2)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-cart.layout_dropdown .w-cart-content,.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-nav.type_desktop .w-nav-list.level_2{bottom:100%;transform-origin:0 100%}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-nav.type_mobile.m_layout_dropdown .w-nav-list.level_1{top:auto;bottom:100%;box-shadow:var(--box-shadow-up)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-nav.type_desktop .w-nav-list.level_3,.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-nav.type_desktop .w-nav-list.level_4{top:auto;bottom:0;transform-origin:0 100%}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-dropdown-list{top:auto;bottom:-.4em;padding-top:.4em;padding-bottom:2.4em}.admin-bar .l-header.pos_static.bg_solid~.l-main .l-section.full_height:first-of-type{min-height:calc(100vh - var(--header-height) - 32px)}.admin-bar .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky_auto_hide)~.l-main .l-section.full_height:not(:first-of-type){min-height:calc(100vh - var(--header-sticky-height) - 32px)}.admin-bar.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main .l-section.full_height:nth-of-type(2){min-height:calc(100vh - 32px)}}@media (min-width:971px) and (max-width:1280px){.hidden_for_laptops{display:none !important}.l-subheader.at_top{display:none}.l-subheader.at_bottom{display:none}.l-header{position:relative;z-index:111}.l-subheader{margin:0 auto}.l-subheader-h{display:flex;align-items:center;position:relative;margin:0 auto;max-width:var(--site-content-width,1200px);height:inherit}.w-header-show{display:none}.l-header.pos_fixed{position:fixed;left:var(--site-outline-width,0);right:var(--site-outline-width,0)}.l-header.pos_fixed:not(.notransition) .l-subheader{transition-property:transform,background,box-shadow,line-height,height,visibility;transition-duration:.3s;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(.78,.13,.15,.86)}.headerinpos_bottom.sticky_first_section .l-header.pos_fixed{position:fixed !important}.header_hor .l-header.sticky_auto_hide{transition:margin .3s cubic-bezier(.78,.13,.15,.86) .1s}.header_hor .l-header.sticky_auto_hide.down{margin-top:calc(-1.1 * var(--header-sticky-height,0px))}.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .l-subheader{box-shadow:none !important;background:none}.l-header.bg_transparent~.l-main .l-section.width_full.height_auto:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important;padding-bottom:0 !important}.l-header.pos_static.bg_transparent{position:absolute;left:var(--site-outline-width,0);right:var(--site-outline-width,0)}.l-subheader.width_full .l-subheader-h{max-width:none !important}.l-header.shadow_thin .l-subheader.at_middle,.l-header.shadow_thin .l-subheader.at_bottom{box-shadow:0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,.08)}.l-header.shadow_wide .l-subheader.at_middle,.l-header.shadow_wide .l-subheader.at_bottom{box-shadow:0 3px 5px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.1),0 2px 1px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.05)}.header_hor .l-subheader-cell>.w-cart{margin-left:0;margin-right:0}:root{--header-height:80px;--header-sticky-height:50px}.l-header:before{content:"80"}.l-header.sticky:before{content:"50"}.l-subheader.at_top{line-height:30px;height:30px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_top{line-height:30px;height:30px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-subheader.at_middle{line-height:80px;height:80px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_middle{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-subheader.at_bottom{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_bottom{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.headerinpos_above .l-header.pos_fixed{overflow:hidden;transition:transform .3s;transform:translate3d(0,-100%,0)}.headerinpos_above .l-header.pos_fixed.sticky{overflow:visible;transform:none}.headerinpos_above .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-section>.l-section-h,.headerinpos_above .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main .l-section:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important}.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky){position:absolute;top:100%}.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main>.l-section:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important}.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main .l-section.full_height:nth-of-type(2){min-height:100vh}.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main>.l-section:nth-of-type(2)>.l-section-h{padding-top:var(--header-height)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky){position:absolute;top:100vh}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main>.l-section:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main>.l-section:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-bottom:var(--header-height)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed.bg_transparent~.l-main .l-section.valign_center:not(.height_auto):first-of-type>.l-section-h{top:calc(var(--header-height) / 2)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-cart.layout_dropdown .w-cart-content,.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-nav.type_desktop .w-nav-list.level_2{bottom:100%;transform-origin:0 100%}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-nav.type_mobile.m_layout_dropdown .w-nav-list.level_1{top:auto;bottom:100%;box-shadow:var(--box-shadow-up)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-nav.type_desktop .w-nav-list.level_3,.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-nav.type_desktop .w-nav-list.level_4{top:auto;bottom:0;transform-origin:0 100%}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-dropdown-list{top:auto;bottom:-.4em;padding-top:.4em;padding-bottom:2.4em}.admin-bar .l-header.pos_static.bg_solid~.l-main .l-section.full_height:first-of-type{min-height:calc(100vh - var(--header-height) - 32px)}.admin-bar .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky_auto_hide)~.l-main .l-section.full_height:not(:first-of-type){min-height:calc(100vh - var(--header-sticky-height) - 32px)}.admin-bar.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main .l-section.full_height:nth-of-type(2){min-height:calc(100vh - 32px)}}@media (min-width:901px) and (max-width:970px){.hidden_for_tablets{display:none !important}.l-subheader.at_top{display:none}.l-subheader.at_bottom{display:none}.l-header{position:relative;z-index:111}.l-subheader{margin:0 auto}.l-subheader-h{display:flex;align-items:center;position:relative;margin:0 auto;max-width:var(--site-content-width,1200px);height:inherit}.w-header-show{display:none}.l-header.pos_fixed{position:fixed;left:var(--site-outline-width,0);right:var(--site-outline-width,0)}.l-header.pos_fixed:not(.notransition) .l-subheader{transition-property:transform,background,box-shadow,line-height,height,visibility;transition-duration:.3s;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(.78,.13,.15,.86)}.headerinpos_bottom.sticky_first_section .l-header.pos_fixed{position:fixed !important}.header_hor .l-header.sticky_auto_hide{transition:margin .3s cubic-bezier(.78,.13,.15,.86) .1s}.header_hor .l-header.sticky_auto_hide.down{margin-top:calc(-1.1 * var(--header-sticky-height,0px))}.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .l-subheader{box-shadow:none !important;background:none}.l-header.bg_transparent~.l-main .l-section.width_full.height_auto:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important;padding-bottom:0 !important}.l-header.pos_static.bg_transparent{position:absolute;left:var(--site-outline-width,0);right:var(--site-outline-width,0)}.l-subheader.width_full .l-subheader-h{max-width:none !important}.l-header.shadow_thin .l-subheader.at_middle,.l-header.shadow_thin .l-subheader.at_bottom{box-shadow:0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,.08)}.l-header.shadow_wide .l-subheader.at_middle,.l-header.shadow_wide .l-subheader.at_bottom{box-shadow:0 3px 5px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.1),0 2px 1px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.05)}.header_hor .l-subheader-cell>.w-cart{margin-left:0;margin-right:0}:root{--header-height:80px;--header-sticky-height:60px}.l-header:before{content:"80"}.l-header.sticky:before{content:"60"}.l-subheader.at_top{line-height:30px;height:30px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_top{line-height:30px;height:30px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-subheader.at_middle{line-height:80px;height:80px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_middle{line-height:60px;height:60px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-subheader.at_bottom{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_bottom{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}}@media (max-width:900px){.hidden_for_mobiles{display:none !important}.l-subheader.at_top{display:none}.l-subheader.at_bottom{display:none}.l-header{position:relative;z-index:111}.l-subheader{margin:0 auto}.l-subheader-h{display:flex;align-items:center;position:relative;margin:0 auto;max-width:var(--site-content-width,1200px);height:inherit}.w-header-show{display:none}.l-header.pos_fixed{position:fixed;left:var(--site-outline-width,0);right:var(--site-outline-width,0)}.l-header.pos_fixed:not(.notransition) .l-subheader{transition-property:transform,background,box-shadow,line-height,height,visibility;transition-duration:.3s;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(.78,.13,.15,.86)}.headerinpos_bottom.sticky_first_section .l-header.pos_fixed{position:fixed !important}.header_hor .l-header.sticky_auto_hide{transition:margin .3s cubic-bezier(.78,.13,.15,.86) .1s}.header_hor .l-header.sticky_auto_hide.down{margin-top:calc(-1.1 * var(--header-sticky-height,0px))}.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .l-subheader{box-shadow:none !important;background:none}.l-header.bg_transparent~.l-main .l-section.width_full.height_auto:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important;padding-bottom:0 !important}.l-header.pos_static.bg_transparent{position:absolute;left:var(--site-outline-width,0);right:var(--site-outline-width,0)}.l-subheader.width_full .l-subheader-h{max-width:none !important}.l-header.shadow_thin .l-subheader.at_middle,.l-header.shadow_thin .l-subheader.at_bottom{box-shadow:0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,.08)}.l-header.shadow_wide .l-subheader.at_middle,.l-header.shadow_wide .l-subheader.at_bottom{box-shadow:0 3px 5px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.1),0 2px 1px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.05)}.header_hor .l-subheader-cell>.w-cart{margin-left:0;margin-right:0}:root{--header-height:80px;--header-sticky-height:60px}.l-header:before{content:"80"}.l-header.sticky:before{content:"60"}.l-subheader.at_top{line-height:40px;height:40px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_top{line-height:40px;height:40px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-subheader.at_middle{line-height:80px;height:80px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_middle{line-height:60px;height:60px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-subheader.at_bottom{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_bottom{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}}@media (min-width:1281px){.ush_image_1{height:60px !important}.l-header.sticky .ush_image_1{height:40px !important}}@media (min-width:971px) and (max-width:1280px){.ush_image_1{height:30px !important}.l-header.sticky .ush_image_1{height:30px !important}}@media (min-width:901px) and (max-width:970px){.ush_image_1{height:55px !important}.l-header.sticky .ush_image_1{height:40px !important}}@media (max-width:900px){.ush_image_1{height:40px !important}.l-header.sticky .ush_image_1{height:40px !important}}.ush_menu_3.type_desktop{--menu-items-gap:20px}.ush_menu_3.type_desktop .menu-item:not(.level_1){font-size:1rem}.ush_menu_3.type_mobile .w-nav-anchor.level_1,.ush_menu_3.type_mobile .w-nav-anchor.level_1 + .w-nav-arrow{font-size:1.1rem}.ush_menu_3.type_mobile .w-nav-anchor:not(.level_1),.ush_menu_3.type_mobile .w-nav-anchor:not(.level_1) + .w-nav-arrow{font-size:.9rem}@media (min-width:1281px){.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-icon{--icon-size:20px;--icon-size-int:20}}@media (min-width:971px) and (max-width:1280px){.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-icon{--icon-size:32px;--icon-size-int:32}}@media (min-width:901px) and (max-width:970px){.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-icon{--icon-size:20px;--icon-size-int:20}}@media (max-width:900px){.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-icon{--icon-size:20px;--icon-size-int:20}}@media screen and (max-width:766px){.w-nav.ush_menu_3>.w-nav-list.level_1{display:none}.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-control{display:flex}}.no-touch .ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item.level_1.opened>a:not(.w-btn),.no-touch .ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item.level_1:hover>a:not(.w-btn){background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item.level_1.current-menu-item>a:not(.w-btn),.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item.level_1.current-menu-ancestor>a:not(.w-btn),.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item.level_1.current-page-ancestor>a:not(.w-btn){background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .ush_menu_3.type_desktop .w-nav-item.level_1.current-menu-item>a:not(.w-btn),.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .ush_menu_3.type_desktop .w-nav-item.level_1.current-menu-ancestor>a:not(.w-btn),.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .ush_menu_3.type_desktop .w-nav-item.level_1.current-page-ancestor>a:not(.w-btn){background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-transparent-text-hover)}.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-list:not(.level_1){background:var(--color-header-middle-bg);color:var(--color-header-middle-text)}.no-touch .ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1)>a:focus,.no-touch .ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1):hover>a{background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1).current-menu-item>a,.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1).current-menu-ancestor>a,.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1).current-page-ancestor>a{background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}.ush_menu_2.type_desktop{--menu-items-gap:20px}.ush_menu_2.type_desktop .menu-item:not(.level_1){font-size:1rem}.ush_menu_2.type_mobile .w-nav-anchor.level_1,.ush_menu_2.type_mobile .w-nav-anchor.level_1 + .w-nav-arrow{font-size:1.1rem}.ush_menu_2.type_mobile .w-nav-anchor:not(.level_1),.ush_menu_2.type_mobile .w-nav-anchor:not(.level_1) + .w-nav-arrow{font-size:.9rem}@media (min-width:1281px){.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-icon{--icon-size:24px;--icon-size-int:24}}@media (min-width:971px) and (max-width:1280px){.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-icon{--icon-size:32px;--icon-size-int:32}}@media (min-width:901px) and (max-width:970px){.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-icon{--icon-size:24px;--icon-size-int:24}}@media (max-width:900px){.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-icon{--icon-size:24px;--icon-size-int:24}}@media screen and (max-width:969px){.w-nav.ush_menu_2>.w-nav-list.level_1{display:none}.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-control{display:flex}}.no-touch .ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item.level_1.opened>a:not(.w-btn),.no-touch .ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item.level_1:hover>a:not(.w-btn){background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item.level_1.current-menu-item>a:not(.w-btn),.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item.level_1.current-menu-ancestor>a:not(.w-btn),.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item.level_1.current-page-ancestor>a:not(.w-btn){background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .ush_menu_2.type_desktop .w-nav-item.level_1.current-menu-item>a:not(.w-btn),.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .ush_menu_2.type_desktop .w-nav-item.level_1.current-menu-ancestor>a:not(.w-btn),.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .ush_menu_2.type_desktop .w-nav-item.level_1.current-page-ancestor>a:not(.w-btn){background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-transparent-text-hover)}.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-list:not(.level_1){background:var(--color-header-middle-bg);color:var(--color-header-middle-text)}.no-touch .ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1)>a:focus,.no-touch .ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1):hover>a{background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1).current-menu-item>a,.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1).current-menu-ancestor>a,.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1).current-page-ancestor>a{background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}@media (min-width:1281px){.ush_search_1.layout_simple{max-width:240px}.ush_search_1.layout_modern.active{width:240px}.ush_search_1{font-size:18px}}@media (min-width:971px) and (max-width:1280px){.ush_search_1.layout_simple{max-width:250px}.ush_search_1.layout_modern.active{width:250px}.ush_search_1{font-size:24px}}@media (min-width:901px) and (max-width:970px){.ush_search_1.layout_simple{max-width:200px}.ush_search_1.layout_modern.active{width:200px}.ush_search_1{font-size:18px}}@media (max-width:900px){.ush_search_1{font-size:18px}}@media (min-width:601px) and (max-width:900px){.ush_menu_3{font-size:.9rem !important}}.us_custom_6b565733{color:#fff !important;background:var(--color-alt-content-bg) !important}.us_custom_6b4f4b01{color:var(--color-content-primary) !important;font-weight:700 !important;padding-bottom:.5rem !important;border-bottom-width:1px !important;border-color:var(--color-content-primary) !important;border-bottom-style:solid !important}.us_custom_fb1528c0{margin-top:1.5rem !important;margin-bottom:1.5rem !important}.us_custom_1ecc9f71{color:#fff !important;font-family:var(--font-family) !important;text-transform:none !important;font-size:1.2rem !important;line-height:1.5 !important;padding-top:0 !important}.us_custom_278d8c57{padding-top:0 !important;padding-bottom:0 !important}.us_custom_dfe4a1ab{max-width:1400px !important;padding-top:1.1rem !important}.us_custom_68905004{margin-top:1rem !important;margin-bottom:1rem !important}.us_custom_82a09314{max-width:90% !important}.us_custom_1e92a97a{color:#fff !important;background:var(--color-header-middle-bg) !important;padding:1rem 1.5rem 1rem 1.5rem !important;border:1px solid var(--color-content-border) !important}.us_custom_c8ce0658{color:var(--color-header-middle-text) !important;background:var(--color-header-middle-bg) !important;padding:1rem 1.5rem 1rem 1.5rem !important;border:1px solid var(--color-content-border) !important}.us_custom_70facfb4{margin-bottom:1.5rem !important}.us_custom_1e0e9307{font-size:18px !important}.us_custom_dc0399e3{padding-top:.5rem !important;padding-bottom:.5rem !important;background:var(--color-footer-bg-alt) no-repeat left top/cover !important}.us_custom_968fe4ef{color:#fff !important;text-transform:uppercase !important;font-size:.8rem !important}#rs-demo-id{}@media (max-width:900px){#us_grid_1{--columns:2 !important}}@media (max-width:600px){#us_grid_1{--columns:1 !important}}.layout_2045076 .w-grid-item-h{}.layout_2045076 .usg_post_title_1{transition-duration:.1s;transform-origin:50% 50%;transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%)}.layout_2045076 .w-grid-item-h:focus-within .usg_post_title_1,.layout_2045076 .w-grid-item-h:hover .usg_post_title_1{transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%);opacity:1;color:#fff !important}.layout_2045076 .usg_post_date_1{transition-duration:.3s;transform-origin:50% 50%;transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%)}.layout_2045076 .w-grid-item-h:focus-within .usg_post_date_1,.layout_2045076 .w-grid-item-h:hover .usg_post_date_1{transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%);opacity:1;color:#fff !important}.layout_2045076 .usg_post_title_1{color:#fff !important;font-weight:500 !important;font-size:1rem !important;padding-top:0 !important;padding-bottom:0 !important}.layout_2045076 .usg_post_date_1{color:var(--color-content-faded) !important;text-transform:uppercase !important;font-size:.9rem !important}.layout_2045076 .usg_vwrapper_1{padding:1% 3% 1% 3% !important}@media (max-width:900px){#us_grid_2{--columns:2 !important}}@media (max-width:600px){#us_grid_2{--columns:1 !important}}.layout_2045541 .w-grid-item-h{}.layout_2045541 .usg_hwrapper_1{transition-duration:.3s;transform-origin:50% 50%;transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%)}.layout_2045541 .w-grid-item-h:focus-within .usg_hwrapper_1,.layout_2045541 .w-grid-item-h:hover .usg_hwrapper_1{transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%);opacity:1}.layout_2045541 .usg_hwrapper_1{height:55px !important;border-bottom-width:2px !important;border-color:var(--color-content-primary) !important;border-bottom-style:solid !important}.layout_2045541 .usg_post_custom_field_1{text-align:center !important}.layout_2045541 .usg_post_title_1{color:#fff !important;text-align:left !important;font-size:1rem !important}@media (min-width:601px) and (max-width:900px){.layout_2045541 .usg_post_title_1{color:#fff !important;text-align:center !important;font-size:1rem !important}}@media (max-width:600px){.layout_2045541 .usg_post_title_1{color:#fff !important;text-align:center !important;font-size:1rem !important}}.layout_2045548 .w-grid-item-h{}.layout_2045548 .usg_post_custom_field_1{text-align:center !important}.layout_2045548 .usg_post_title_1{color:#fff !important;text-align:center !important;font-size:.6rem !important}.layout_2045548 .usg_vwrapper_1{padding:.8rem !important}@media ( max-width:900px ){.w-filter.state_desktop .w-filter-list,.w-filter-item-title>span{display:none}.w-filter-opener{display:inline-block}}.layout_2050041 .w-grid-item-h{background:var(--color-content-bg);color:var(--color-content-text);border-radius:0rem}.layout_2050041 .usg_post_title_1{transition-duration:.3s;transform-origin:50% 50%;transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%)}.layout_2050041 .w-grid-item-h:focus-within .usg_post_title_1,.layout_2050041 .w-grid-item-h:hover .usg_post_title_1{transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%);opacity:1;color:var(--color-content-link) !important}.layout_2050041 .usg_vwrapper_1{transition-duration:.3s;transform-origin:50% 50%;transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%)}.layout_2050041 .w-grid-item-h:focus-within .usg_vwrapper_1,.layout_2050041 .w-grid-item-h:hover .usg_vwrapper_1{transform:scale(1) translate(0%,-3%);opacity:1}@media (max-width:899px){.layout_2050041 .usg_post_content_1{display:none !important}}.layout_2050041 .usg_post_title_1{font-weight:700 !important;font-size:1.2rem !important}.layout_2050041 .usg_vwrapper_1{padding-right:1.3rem !important}.layout_2050041 .usg_post_taxonomy_1{font-weight:700 !important;text-transform:uppercase !important;font-size:10px !important;margin-bottom:1rem !important}.layout_2050041 .usg_post_date_1{font-weight:400 !important;text-transform:uppercase !important}.layout_2050041 .usg_vwrapper_2{border-bottom-width:1px !important;border-color:var(--color-content-border) !important;border-bottom-style:solid !important;padding:1rem !important}.layout_2050041 .usg_post_content_1{font-family:var(--font-family) !important;text-transform:none !important}.layout_2050041 .usg_vwrapper_3{color:var(--color-content-faded) !important}@media (max-width:600px){.layout_2050041 .usg_post_title_1{font-size:1.2rem !important}}@media ( max-width:600px ){.w-filter.state_desktop .w-filter-list,.w-filter-item-title>span{display:none}.w-filter-opener{display:inline-block}}footer#page-footer p,span{font-family:aktiv-grotesk-extended,sans-serif;font-weight:400;text-transform:uppercase}footer#page-footer a:not(.w-socials-item-link){text-decoration:underline}footer#page-footer h4{border-bottom-color:#4e4e4e;box-shadow:inset 0 -6px #4e4e4e;font-weight:inherit;display:table;font-size:16px}.w-socials-item-link{border:2px solid white !important;line-height:3rem}ul#menu-footer-menu{column-count:2}ul#menu-footer-menu li{font-family:aktiv-grotesk-extended,sans-serif;text-transform:uppercase}@media ( max-width:600px ){.us_menu_1 .menu{display:block !important}.us_menu_1 .menu>li:not(:last-child){margin:0 0 var(--main-gap,1.5rem) !important}}#ancr-2050504{background:#0d0d0d;color:#fff !important;box-shadow:0 2px 4px -2px rgba(0,0,0,.5);box-shadow:0 -2px 4px -2px rgba(0,0,0,.5)}#ancr-2050504 .ancr-btn-primary{background:#fff;color:#000 !important;box-shadow:0 2px 4px -2px rgba(0,0,0,.5)}#ancr-2050504 .ancr-btn-secondary{background:#f9df74;color:#000 !important;box-shadow:0 2px 4px -2px rgba(0,0,0,.5)}#ancr-2050504 .ancr-container{max-width:1000px}#ancr-2050504 .ancr-content a{color:#fff}

DISCOVER THE LATEST IN TECH POLICY

Golden State Antitrust Warriors: The Costs of Balkanizing U.S. Competition Policy

The FCC Got the Router Ban Wrong. It Knew Better.

The Administration Is Already Governing AI Development. It Just Doesn’t Have a Strategy.

EXPLORE OUR RESEARCH TOPICS

Antitrust and Competition

Artificial Intelligence

Broadband

Content Moderation

Economics and Methods

Free Speech

Evidence-Based Policy

Intellectual Property

Privacy and Security

Miscellaneous