Topics
- DISCOVER THE LATEST IN TECH POLICY
  
  Michael McConnell on Winning the Tariff Case and the Fate of Humphrey’s Executor
  April 23, 2026
  
  BROADBAND INFRASTRUCTURE IN TRIBAL AREAS (2015–2025)
  April 21, 2026
  
  Caveat Promptor: A Case Study of Tribal Land Descriptions
  April 21, 2026
  
  EXPLORE OUR RESEARCH TOPICS
  
  Antitrust and Competition
  
  Artificial Intelligence
  
  Broadband
  
  Content Moderation
  
  Economics and Methods
  
  Free Speech
  
  Evidence-Based Policy
  
  Intellectual Property
  
  Privacy and Security
  
  Miscellaneous
  
  All Publications
  All Authors
Podcast
Aspen Forum
Events
Blog
About

All Publications

Shut Down the Federal Communications Commission

May 26, 2025

Thomas M. Lenard

Preserving the Bottom Rung: How We Can Protect Experiential Learning in the AI Era

May 21, 2025

Scott Wallsten

Last summer, I asked Anthropic’s AI assistant Claude to clean some data…

Tariffs Imperil America’s Service Economy

May 12, 2025

Scott Wallsten

America’s service-powered economy—now nearly three-quarters of GDP and over $1 trillion in…

You’re Fired: How Direct Presidential Control Makes the FTC Redundant

May 6, 2025

Jonathan Nuechterlein

President Trump cited no reason when he fired Democratic FTC Commissioners Rebecca…

Agency Independence and Humphrey’s Executor: William Kovacic and Jon Nuechterlein on Two Think Minimum

May 1, 2025

William Kovacic, Jonathan Nuechterlein, Thomas M. Lenard, Scott Wallsten and Sarah Oh Lam

Two Think Minimum · Bill Kovacic and Jon Nuechterlein on Agency Independence…

Trump’s tariffs also threaten US innovation

April 17, 2025

Brad Jensen and Scott Wallsten

President Donald Trump’s on-again, off-again tariffs have shocked bond and stock markets,…

Starlink and DOGE: The $42 Billion Conflict of Interest in Rural Broadband

April 9, 2025

Scott Wallsten

DOGE Should Focus On Wasted Federal Spectrum

March 31, 2025

Thomas M. Lenard and Lawrence White

Spectrum Policy 2025: Insights from TPI’s Winter Series

March 27, 2025

TPI

DISCLAIMER: This post synthesizes discussions from TPI’s 2025 spectrum panel series, representing…

International Spectrum Leadership: Key takeaways

March 20, 2025

Sarah Oh Lam and Scott Wallsten

The Technology Policy Institute’s sixth webinar of the 2025 Winter Spectrum Series…

Sign Up for Updates

img:is([sizes=auto i],[sizes^="auto," i]){contain-intrinsic-size:3000px 1500px}img.wp-smiley,img.emoji{display:inline !important;border:none !important;box-shadow:none !important;height:1em !important;width:1em !important;margin:0 .07em !important;vertical-align:-.1em !important;background:none !important;padding:0 !important}h1:where(.wp-block-heading).has-background,h2:where(.wp-block-heading).has-background,h3:where(.wp-block-heading).has-background,h4:where(.wp-block-heading).has-background,h5:where(.wp-block-heading).has-background,h6:where(.wp-block-heading).has-background{padding:1.25em 2.375em}h1.has-text-align-left[style*=writing-mode]:where([style*=vertical-lr]),h1.has-text-align-right[style*=writing-mode]:where([style*=vertical-rl]),h2.has-text-align-left[style*=writing-mode]:where([style*=vertical-lr]),h2.has-text-align-right[style*=writing-mode]:where([style*=vertical-rl]),h3.has-text-align-left[style*=writing-mode]:where([style*=vertical-lr]),h3.has-text-align-right[style*=writing-mode]:where([style*=vertical-rl]),h4.has-text-align-left[style*=writing-mode]:where([style*=vertical-lr]),h4.has-text-align-right[style*=writing-mode]:where([style*=vertical-rl]),h5.has-text-align-left[style*=writing-mode]:where([style*=vertical-lr]),h5.has-text-align-right[style*=writing-mode]:where([style*=vertical-rl]),h6.has-text-align-left[style*=writing-mode]:where([style*=vertical-lr]),h6.has-text-align-right[style*=writing-mode]:where([style*=vertical-rl]){rotate:180deg}.wp-block-image>a,.wp-block-image>figure>a{display:inline-block}.wp-block-image img{box-sizing:border-box;height:auto;max-width:100%;vertical-align:bottom}@media not (prefers-reduced-motion){.wp-block-image img.hide{visibility:hidden}.wp-block-image img.show{animation:show-content-image .4s}}.wp-block-image[style*=border-radius] img,.wp-block-image[style*=border-radius]>a{border-radius:inherit}.wp-block-image.has-custom-border img{box-sizing:border-box}.wp-block-image.aligncenter{text-align:center}.wp-block-image.alignfull>a,.wp-block-image.alignwide>a{width:100%}.wp-block-image.alignfull img,.wp-block-image.alignwide img{height:auto;width:100%}.wp-block-image .aligncenter,.wp-block-image .alignleft,.wp-block-image .alignright,.wp-block-image.aligncenter,.wp-block-image.alignleft,.wp-block-image.alignright{display:table}.wp-block-image .aligncenter>figcaption,.wp-block-image .alignleft>figcaption,.wp-block-image .alignright>figcaption,.wp-block-image.aligncenter>figcaption,.wp-block-image.alignleft>figcaption,.wp-block-image.alignright>figcaption{caption-side:bottom;display:table-caption}.wp-block-image .alignleft{float:left;margin:.5em 1em .5em 0}.wp-block-image .alignright{float:right;margin:.5em 0 .5em 1em}.wp-block-image .aligncenter{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.wp-block-image :where(figcaption){margin-bottom:1em;margin-top:.5em}.wp-block-image.is-style-circle-mask img{border-radius:9999px}@supports ((-webkit-mask-image:none) or (mask-image:none)) or (-webkit-mask-image:none){.wp-block-image.is-style-circle-mask img{border-radius:0;-webkit-mask-image:url("data:image/svg+xml;utf8,<svg viewBox=\"0 0 100 100\" xmlns=\"http://www.w3.org/2000/svg\"><circle cx=\"50\" cy=\"50\" r=\"50\"/></svg>");mask-image:url("data:image/svg+xml;utf8,<svg viewBox=\"0 0 100 100\" xmlns=\"http://www.w3.org/2000/svg\"><circle cx=\"50\" cy=\"50\" r=\"50\"/></svg>");mask-mode:alpha;-webkit-mask-position:center;mask-position:center;-webkit-mask-repeat:no-repeat;mask-repeat:no-repeat;-webkit-mask-size:contain;mask-size:contain}.wp-block-image.is-style-circle-mask img.nitro-lazy{mask-image:none !important}}:root :where(.wp-block-image.is-style-rounded img,.wp-block-image .is-style-rounded img){border-radius:9999px}.wp-block-image figure{margin:0}.wp-lightbox-container{display:flex;flex-direction:column;position:relative}.wp-lightbox-container img{cursor:zoom-in}.wp-lightbox-container img:hover+button{opacity:1}.wp-lightbox-container button{align-items:center;backdrop-filter:blur(16px) saturate(180%);background-color:rgba(90,90,90,.25);border:none;border-radius:4px;cursor:zoom-in;display:flex;height:20px;justify-content:center;opacity:0;padding:0;position:absolute;right:16px;text-align:center;top:16px;width:20px;z-index:100}@media not (prefers-reduced-motion){.wp-lightbox-container button{transition:opacity .2s ease}}.wp-lightbox-container button:focus-visible{outline:3px auto rgba(90,90,90,.25);outline:3px auto -webkit-focus-ring-color;outline-offset:3px}.wp-lightbox-container button:hover{cursor:pointer;opacity:1}.wp-lightbox-container button:focus{opacity:1}.wp-lightbox-container button:focus,.wp-lightbox-container button:hover,.wp-lightbox-container button:not(:hover):not(:active):not(.has-background){background-color:rgba(90,90,90,.25);border:none}.wp-lightbox-overlay{box-sizing:border-box;cursor:zoom-out;height:100vh;left:0;overflow:hidden;position:fixed;top:0;visibility:hidden;width:100%;z-index:100000}.wp-lightbox-overlay .close-button{align-items:center;cursor:pointer;display:flex;justify-content:center;min-height:40px;min-width:40px;padding:0;position:absolute;right:calc(env(safe-area-inset-right) + 16px);top:calc(env(safe-area-inset-top) + 16px);z-index:5000000}.wp-lightbox-overlay .close-button:focus,.wp-lightbox-overlay .close-button:hover,.wp-lightbox-overlay .close-button:not(:hover):not(:active):not(.has-background){background:none;border:none}.wp-lightbox-overlay .lightbox-image-container{height:var(--wp--lightbox-container-height);left:50%;overflow:hidden;position:absolute;top:50%;transform:translate(-50%,-50%);transform-origin:top left;width:var(--wp--lightbox-container-width);z-index:9999999999}.wp-lightbox-overlay .wp-block-image{align-items:center;box-sizing:border-box;display:flex;height:100%;justify-content:center;margin:0;position:relative;transform-origin:0 0;width:100%;z-index:3000000}.wp-lightbox-overlay .wp-block-image img{height:var(--wp--lightbox-image-height);min-height:var(--wp--lightbox-image-height);min-width:var(--wp--lightbox-image-width);width:var(--wp--lightbox-image-width)}.wp-lightbox-overlay .wp-block-image figcaption{display:none}.wp-lightbox-overlay button{background:none;border:none}.wp-lightbox-overlay .scrim{background-color:#fff;height:100%;opacity:.9;position:absolute;width:100%;z-index:2000000}.wp-lightbox-overlay.active{visibility:visible}@media not (prefers-reduced-motion){.wp-lightbox-overlay.active{animation:turn-on-visibility .25s both}.wp-lightbox-overlay.active img{animation:turn-on-visibility .35s both}.wp-lightbox-overlay.show-closing-animation:not(.active){animation:turn-off-visibility .35s both}.wp-lightbox-overlay.show-closing-animation:not(.active) img{animation:turn-off-visibility .25s both}.wp-lightbox-overlay.zoom.active{animation:none;opacity:1;visibility:visible}.wp-lightbox-overlay.zoom.active .lightbox-image-container{animation:lightbox-zoom-in .4s}.wp-lightbox-overlay.zoom.active .lightbox-image-container img{animation:none}.wp-lightbox-overlay.zoom.active .scrim{animation:turn-on-visibility .4s forwards}.wp-lightbox-overlay.zoom.show-closing-animation:not(.active){animation:none}.wp-lightbox-overlay.zoom.show-closing-animation:not(.active) .lightbox-image-container{animation:lightbox-zoom-out .4s}.wp-lightbox-overlay.zoom.show-closing-animation:not(.active) .lightbox-image-container img{animation:none}.wp-lightbox-overlay.zoom.show-closing-animation:not(.active) .scrim{animation:turn-off-visibility .4s forwards}}@keyframes show-content-image{0%{visibility:hidden}99%{visibility:hidden}to{visibility:visible}}@keyframes turn-on-visibility{0%{opacity:0}to{opacity:1}}@keyframes turn-off-visibility{0%{opacity:1;visibility:visible}99%{opacity:0;visibility:visible}to{opacity:0;visibility:hidden}}@keyframes lightbox-zoom-in{0%{transform:translate(calc(( -100vw + var(--wp--lightbox-scrollbar-width) ) / 2 + var(--wp--lightbox-initial-left-position)),calc(-50vh + var(--wp--lightbox-initial-top-position))) scale(var(--wp--lightbox-scale))}to{transform:translate(-50%,-50%) scale(1)}}@keyframes lightbox-zoom-out{0%{transform:translate(-50%,-50%) scale(1);visibility:visible}99%{visibility:visible}to{transform:translate(calc(( -100vw + var(--wp--lightbox-scrollbar-width) ) / 2 + var(--wp--lightbox-initial-left-position)),calc(-50vh + var(--wp--lightbox-initial-top-position))) scale(var(--wp--lightbox-scale));visibility:hidden}}ol,ul{box-sizing:border-box}:root :where(.wp-block-list.has-background){padding:1.25em 2.375em}.is-small-text{font-size:.875em}.is-regular-text{font-size:1em}.is-large-text{font-size:2.25em}.is-larger-text{font-size:3em}.has-drop-cap:not(:focus):first-letter{float:left;font-size:8.4em;font-style:normal;font-weight:100;line-height:.68;margin:.05em .1em 0 0;text-transform:uppercase}body.rtl .has-drop-cap:not(:focus):first-letter{float:none;margin-left:.1em}p.has-drop-cap.has-background{overflow:hidden}:root :where(p.has-background){padding:1.25em 2.375em}:where(p.has-text-color:not(.has-link-color)) a{color:inherit}p.has-text-align-left[style*="writing-mode:vertical-lr"],p.has-text-align-right[style*="writing-mode:vertical-rl"]{rotate:180deg}.wp-block-button__link{color:#fff;background-color:#32373c;border-radius:9999px;box-shadow:none;text-decoration:none;padding:calc(.667em + 2px) calc(1.333em + 2px);font-size:1.125em}.wp-block-file__button{background:#32373c;color:#fff;text-decoration:none}:root{--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--square:1;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--4-3:4/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-4:3/4;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-2:3/2;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--2-3:2/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--16-9:16/9;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--9-16:9/16;--wp--preset--color--black:#000;--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray:#abb8c3;--wp--preset--color--white:#fff;--wp--preset--color--pale-pink:#f78da7;--wp--preset--color--vivid-red:#cf2e2e;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange:#ff6900;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber:#fcb900;--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan:#7bdcb5;--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan:#00d084;--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue:#8ed1fc;--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue:#0693e3;--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple:#9b51e0;--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple:linear-gradient(135deg,#0693e3 0%,#9b51e0 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan:linear-gradient(135deg,#7adcb4 0%,#00d082 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange:linear-gradient(135deg,#fcb900 0%,#ff6900 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red:linear-gradient(135deg,#ff6900 0%,#cf2e2e 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray:linear-gradient(135deg,#eee 0%,#a9b8c3 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum:linear-gradient(135deg,#4aeadc 0%,#9778d1 20%,#cf2aba 40%,#ee2c82 60%,#fb6962 80%,#fef84c 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple:linear-gradient(135deg,#ffceec 0%,#9896f0 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux:linear-gradient(135deg,#fecda5 0%,#fe2d2d 50%,#6b003e 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk:linear-gradient(135deg,#ffcb70 0%,#c751c0 50%,#4158d0 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean:linear-gradient(135deg,#fff5cb 0%,#b6e3d4 50%,#33a7b5 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass:linear-gradient(135deg,#caf880 0%,#71ce7e 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--midnight:linear-gradient(135deg,#020381 0%,#2874fc 100%);--wp--preset--font-size--small:13px;--wp--preset--font-size--medium:20px;--wp--preset--font-size--large:36px;--wp--preset--font-size--x-large:42px;--wp--preset--spacing--20:.44rem;--wp--preset--spacing--30:.67rem;--wp--preset--spacing--40:1rem;--wp--preset--spacing--50:1.5rem;--wp--preset--spacing--60:2.25rem;--wp--preset--spacing--70:3.38rem;--wp--preset--spacing--80:5.06rem;--wp--preset--shadow--natural:6px 6px 9px rgba(0,0,0,.2);--wp--preset--shadow--deep:12px 12px 50px rgba(0,0,0,.4);--wp--preset--shadow--sharp:6px 6px 0px rgba(0,0,0,.2);--wp--preset--shadow--outlined:6px 6px 0px -3px #fff,6px 6px #000;--wp--preset--shadow--crisp:6px 6px 0px #000}:where(.is-layout-flex){gap:.5em}:where(.is-layout-grid){gap:.5em}body .is-layout-flex{display:flex}.is-layout-flex{flex-wrap:wrap;align-items:center}.is-layout-flex>:is(*, div){margin:0}body .is-layout-grid{display:grid}.is-layout-grid>:is(*, div){margin:0}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap:2em}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap:2em}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap:1.25em}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap:1.25em}.has-black-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important}.has-white-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important}.has-pale-pink-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important}.has-vivid-red-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important}.has-light-green-cyan-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important}.has-vivid-green-cyan-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important}.has-pale-cyan-blue-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important}.has-vivid-purple-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important}.has-black-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important}.has-white-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important}.has-pale-pink-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important}.has-vivid-red-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important}.has-light-green-cyan-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important}.has-vivid-green-cyan-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important}.has-pale-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important}.has-vivid-purple-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important}.has-black-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important}.has-white-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important}.has-pale-pink-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important}.has-vivid-red-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important}.has-light-green-cyan-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important}.has-vivid-green-cyan-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important}.has-pale-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important}.has-vivid-purple-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple) !important}.has-light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan) !important}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange) !important}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red) !important}.has-very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray) !important}.has-cool-to-warm-spectrum-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum) !important}.has-blush-light-purple-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple) !important}.has-blush-bordeaux-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux) !important}.has-luminous-dusk-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk) !important}.has-pale-ocean-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean) !important}.has-electric-grass-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass) !important}.has-midnight-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--midnight) !important}.has-small-font-size{font-size:var(--wp--preset--font-size--small) !important}.has-medium-font-size{font-size:var(--wp--preset--font-size--medium) !important}.has-large-font-size{font-size:var(--wp--preset--font-size--large) !important}.has-x-large-font-size{font-size:var(--wp--preset--font-size--x-large) !important}.ancr-pos-bottom #gform_wrapper_1.gform_wrapper{display:flex;align-items:center}.ancr-pos-bottom #gform_wrapper_1.gform_wrapper .gform_heading{width:320px}.ancr-pos-bottom #gform_wrapper_1.gform_wrapper .gform_heading h2{margin-bottom:.75rem}.ancr-pos-bottom #gform_wrapper_1.gform_wrapper .gform_body #field_submit{display:grid}@media (max-width: 1160px){.ancr-pos-bottom #gform_wrapper_1.gform_wrapper{flex-flow:wrap}.ancr-pos-bottom #gform_wrapper_1.gform_wrapper #field_1_1{grid-column:span 9}}@media (max-width: 640px){.ancr-pos-bottom #gform_wrapper_1.gform_wrapper #gform_1{width:94%}.ancr-pos-bottom #gform_wrapper_1.gform_wrapper #field_1_1{grid-column:span 12}}.pp-podcast{opacity:0}.molongui-disabled-link{border-bottom:none !important;text-decoration:none !important;color:inherit !important;cursor:inherit !important}.molongui-disabled-link:hover,.molongui-disabled-link:hover span{border-bottom:none !important;text-decoration:none !important;color:inherit !important;cursor:inherit !important}.fas{font-family:"fontawesome";font-weight:900}.far{font-family:"fontawesome";font-weight:400}.fal{font-family:"fontawesome";font-weight:300}.fad{font-family:"Font Awesome 5 Duotone";font-weight:900}.fad{position:relative}.fad:before{position:absolute}.fad:after{opacity:.4}.fab{font-family:"Font Awesome 5 Brands";font-weight:400}.material-icons{font-family:"Material Icons";font-weight:400}.l-subheader.at_middle,.l-subheader.at_middle .w-dropdown-list,.l-subheader.at_middle .type_mobile .w-nav-list.level_1{background:var(--color-alt-content-bg);color:var(--color-header-middle-text)}.no-touch .l-subheader.at_middle a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent .l-subheader.at_middle .w-dropdown.opened a:hover{color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .l-subheader.at_middle{background:var(--color-header-transparent-bg);color:#fff}.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-cart-link:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-text a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-html a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-nav>a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-menu a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-search>a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-socials.shape_none.color_text a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-socials.shape_none.color_link a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .w-dropdown a:hover,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .type_desktop .menu-item.level_1.opened>a,.no-touch .l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .at_middle .type_desktop .menu-item.level_1:hover>a{color:var(--color-header-transparent-text-hover)}.header_ver .l-header{background:var(--color-alt-content-bg);color:var(--color-header-middle-text)}@media (min-width:1281px){.hidden_for_default{display:none !important}.l-subheader.at_top{display:none}.l-subheader.at_bottom{display:none}.l-header{position:relative;z-index:111}.l-subheader{margin:0 auto}.l-subheader-h{display:flex;align-items:center;position:relative;margin:0 auto;max-width:var(--site-content-width,1200px);height:inherit}.w-header-show{display:none}.l-header.pos_fixed{position:fixed;left:var(--site-outline-width,0);right:var(--site-outline-width,0)}.l-header.pos_fixed:not(.notransition) .l-subheader{transition-property:transform,background,box-shadow,line-height,height,visibility;transition-duration:.3s;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(.78,.13,.15,.86)}.headerinpos_bottom.sticky_first_section .l-header.pos_fixed{position:fixed !important}.header_hor .l-header.sticky_auto_hide{transition:margin .3s cubic-bezier(.78,.13,.15,.86) .1s}.header_hor .l-header.sticky_auto_hide.down{margin-top:calc(-1.1 * var(--header-sticky-height,0px))}.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .l-subheader{box-shadow:none !important;background:none}.l-header.bg_transparent~.l-main .l-section.width_full.height_auto:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important;padding-bottom:0 !important}.l-header.pos_static.bg_transparent{position:absolute;left:var(--site-outline-width,0);right:var(--site-outline-width,0)}.l-subheader.width_full .l-subheader-h{max-width:none !important}.l-header.shadow_thin .l-subheader.at_middle,.l-header.shadow_thin .l-subheader.at_bottom{box-shadow:var(--box-shadow-thin)}.l-header.shadow_wide .l-subheader.at_middle,.l-header.shadow_wide .l-subheader.at_bottom{box-shadow:0 3px 5px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.1),0 2px 1px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.05)}.header_hor .l-subheader-cell>.w-cart{margin-left:0;margin-right:0}:root{--header-height:80px;--header-sticky-height:50px}.l-header:before{content:"80"}.l-header.sticky:before{content:"50"}.l-subheader.at_top{line-height:30px;height:30px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_top{line-height:30px;height:30px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-subheader.at_middle{line-height:80px;height:80px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_middle{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-subheader.at_bottom{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_bottom{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.headerinpos_above .l-header.pos_fixed{overflow:hidden;transition:transform .3s;transform:translate3d(0,-100%,0)}.headerinpos_above .l-header.pos_fixed.sticky{overflow:visible;transform:none}.headerinpos_above .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-section>.l-section-h,.headerinpos_above .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main .l-section:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important}.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky){position:absolute;top:100%}.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main>.l-section:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important}.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main .l-section.full_height:nth-of-type(2){min-height:var(--viewport-height)}.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main>.l-section:nth-of-type(2)>.l-section-h{padding-top:var(--header-height)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky){position:absolute;top:var(--viewport-height)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main>.l-section:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main>.l-section:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-bottom:var(--header-height)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed.bg_transparent~.l-main .l-section.valign_center:not(.height_auto):first-of-type>.l-section-h{top:calc(var(--header-height) / 2)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-cart.layout_dropdown .w-cart-content,.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-nav.type_desktop .w-nav-list.level_2{bottom:100%;transform-origin:0 100%}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-nav.type_mobile.m_layout_dropdown .w-nav-list.level_1{top:auto;bottom:100%;box-shadow:var(--box-shadow-up)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-nav.type_desktop .w-nav-list.level_3,.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-nav.type_desktop .w-nav-list.level_4{top:auto;bottom:0;transform-origin:0 100%}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-dropdown-list{top:auto;bottom:-.4em;padding-top:.4em;padding-bottom:2.4em}}@media (min-width:971px) and (max-width:1280px){.hidden_for_laptops{display:none !important}.l-subheader.at_top{display:none}.l-subheader.at_bottom{display:none}.l-header{position:relative;z-index:111}.l-subheader{margin:0 auto}.l-subheader-h{display:flex;align-items:center;position:relative;margin:0 auto;max-width:var(--site-content-width,1200px);height:inherit}.w-header-show{display:none}.l-header.pos_fixed{position:fixed;left:var(--site-outline-width,0);right:var(--site-outline-width,0)}.l-header.pos_fixed:not(.notransition) .l-subheader{transition-property:transform,background,box-shadow,line-height,height,visibility;transition-duration:.3s;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(.78,.13,.15,.86)}.headerinpos_bottom.sticky_first_section .l-header.pos_fixed{position:fixed !important}.header_hor .l-header.sticky_auto_hide{transition:margin .3s cubic-bezier(.78,.13,.15,.86) .1s}.header_hor .l-header.sticky_auto_hide.down{margin-top:calc(-1.1 * var(--header-sticky-height,0px))}.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .l-subheader{box-shadow:none !important;background:none}.l-header.bg_transparent~.l-main .l-section.width_full.height_auto:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important;padding-bottom:0 !important}.l-header.pos_static.bg_transparent{position:absolute;left:var(--site-outline-width,0);right:var(--site-outline-width,0)}.l-subheader.width_full .l-subheader-h{max-width:none !important}.l-header.shadow_thin .l-subheader.at_middle,.l-header.shadow_thin .l-subheader.at_bottom{box-shadow:var(--box-shadow-thin)}.l-header.shadow_wide .l-subheader.at_middle,.l-header.shadow_wide .l-subheader.at_bottom{box-shadow:0 3px 5px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.1),0 2px 1px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.05)}.header_hor .l-subheader-cell>.w-cart{margin-left:0;margin-right:0}:root{--header-height:80px;--header-sticky-height:50px}.l-header:before{content:"80"}.l-header.sticky:before{content:"50"}.l-subheader.at_top{line-height:30px;height:30px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_top{line-height:30px;height:30px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-subheader.at_middle{line-height:80px;height:80px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_middle{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-subheader.at_bottom{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_bottom{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.headerinpos_above .l-header.pos_fixed{overflow:hidden;transition:transform .3s;transform:translate3d(0,-100%,0)}.headerinpos_above .l-header.pos_fixed.sticky{overflow:visible;transform:none}.headerinpos_above .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-section>.l-section-h,.headerinpos_above .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main .l-section:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important}.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky){position:absolute;top:100%}.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main>.l-section:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important}.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main .l-section.full_height:nth-of-type(2){min-height:var(--viewport-height)}.headerinpos_below .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main>.l-section:nth-of-type(2)>.l-section-h{padding-top:var(--header-height)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky){position:absolute;top:var(--viewport-height)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main>.l-section:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed~.l-main>.l-section:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-bottom:var(--header-height)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed.bg_transparent~.l-main .l-section.valign_center:not(.height_auto):first-of-type>.l-section-h{top:calc(var(--header-height) / 2)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-cart.layout_dropdown .w-cart-content,.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-nav.type_desktop .w-nav-list.level_2{bottom:100%;transform-origin:0 100%}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-nav.type_mobile.m_layout_dropdown .w-nav-list.level_1{top:auto;bottom:100%;box-shadow:var(--box-shadow-up)}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-nav.type_desktop .w-nav-list.level_3,.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-nav.type_desktop .w-nav-list.level_4{top:auto;bottom:0;transform-origin:0 100%}.headerinpos_bottom .l-header.pos_fixed:not(.sticky) .w-dropdown-list{top:auto;bottom:-.4em;padding-top:.4em;padding-bottom:2.4em}}@media (min-width:901px) and (max-width:970px){.hidden_for_tablets{display:none !important}.l-subheader.at_top{display:none}.l-subheader.at_bottom{display:none}.l-header{position:relative;z-index:111}.l-subheader{margin:0 auto}.l-subheader-h{display:flex;align-items:center;position:relative;margin:0 auto;max-width:var(--site-content-width,1200px);height:inherit}.w-header-show{display:none}.l-header.pos_fixed{position:fixed;left:var(--site-outline-width,0);right:var(--site-outline-width,0)}.l-header.pos_fixed:not(.notransition) .l-subheader{transition-property:transform,background,box-shadow,line-height,height,visibility;transition-duration:.3s;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(.78,.13,.15,.86)}.headerinpos_bottom.sticky_first_section .l-header.pos_fixed{position:fixed !important}.header_hor .l-header.sticky_auto_hide{transition:margin .3s cubic-bezier(.78,.13,.15,.86) .1s}.header_hor .l-header.sticky_auto_hide.down{margin-top:calc(-1.1 * var(--header-sticky-height,0px))}.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .l-subheader{box-shadow:none !important;background:none}.l-header.bg_transparent~.l-main .l-section.width_full.height_auto:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important;padding-bottom:0 !important}.l-header.pos_static.bg_transparent{position:absolute;left:var(--site-outline-width,0);right:var(--site-outline-width,0)}.l-subheader.width_full .l-subheader-h{max-width:none !important}.l-header.shadow_thin .l-subheader.at_middle,.l-header.shadow_thin .l-subheader.at_bottom{box-shadow:var(--box-shadow-thin)}.l-header.shadow_wide .l-subheader.at_middle,.l-header.shadow_wide .l-subheader.at_bottom{box-shadow:0 3px 5px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.1),0 2px 1px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.05)}.header_hor .l-subheader-cell>.w-cart{margin-left:0;margin-right:0}:root{--header-height:80px;--header-sticky-height:60px}.l-header:before{content:"80"}.l-header.sticky:before{content:"60"}.l-subheader.at_top{line-height:30px;height:30px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_top{line-height:30px;height:30px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-subheader.at_middle{line-height:80px;height:80px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_middle{line-height:60px;height:60px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-subheader.at_bottom{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_bottom{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}}@media (max-width:900px){.hidden_for_mobiles{display:none !important}.l-subheader.at_top{display:none}.l-subheader.at_bottom{display:none}.l-header{position:relative;z-index:111}.l-subheader{margin:0 auto}.l-subheader-h{display:flex;align-items:center;position:relative;margin:0 auto;max-width:var(--site-content-width,1200px);height:inherit}.w-header-show{display:none}.l-header.pos_fixed{position:fixed;left:var(--site-outline-width,0);right:var(--site-outline-width,0)}.l-header.pos_fixed:not(.notransition) .l-subheader{transition-property:transform,background,box-shadow,line-height,height,visibility;transition-duration:.3s;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(.78,.13,.15,.86)}.headerinpos_bottom.sticky_first_section .l-header.pos_fixed{position:fixed !important}.header_hor .l-header.sticky_auto_hide{transition:margin .3s cubic-bezier(.78,.13,.15,.86) .1s}.header_hor .l-header.sticky_auto_hide.down{margin-top:calc(-1.1 * var(--header-sticky-height,0px))}.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .l-subheader{box-shadow:none !important;background:none}.l-header.bg_transparent~.l-main .l-section.width_full.height_auto:first-of-type>.l-section-h{padding-top:0 !important;padding-bottom:0 !important}.l-header.pos_static.bg_transparent{position:absolute;left:var(--site-outline-width,0);right:var(--site-outline-width,0)}.l-subheader.width_full .l-subheader-h{max-width:none !important}.l-header.shadow_thin .l-subheader.at_middle,.l-header.shadow_thin .l-subheader.at_bottom{box-shadow:var(--box-shadow-thin)}.l-header.shadow_wide .l-subheader.at_middle,.l-header.shadow_wide .l-subheader.at_bottom{box-shadow:0 3px 5px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.1),0 2px 1px -1px rgba(0,0,0,.05)}.header_hor .l-subheader-cell>.w-cart{margin-left:0;margin-right:0}:root{--header-height:80px;--header-sticky-height:60px}.l-header:before{content:"80"}.l-header.sticky:before{content:"60"}.l-subheader.at_top{line-height:40px;height:40px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_top{line-height:40px;height:40px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-subheader.at_middle{line-height:80px;height:80px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_middle{line-height:60px;height:60px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-subheader.at_bottom{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}.l-header.sticky .l-subheader.at_bottom{line-height:50px;height:50px;overflow:visible;visibility:visible}}@media (min-width:1281px){.ush_image_1{height:60px !important}.l-header.sticky .ush_image_1{height:40px !important}}@media (min-width:971px) and (max-width:1280px){.ush_image_1{height:30px !important}.l-header.sticky .ush_image_1{height:30px !important}}@media (min-width:901px) and (max-width:970px){.ush_image_1{height:55px !important}.l-header.sticky .ush_image_1{height:40px !important}}@media (max-width:900px){.ush_image_1{height:40px !important}.l-header.sticky .ush_image_1{height:40px !important}}.ush_menu_3.type_desktop{--menu-items-gap:20px}.ush_menu_3.type_desktop .menu-item:not(.level_1){font-size:1rem}.ush_menu_3.type_mobile .w-nav-anchor.level_1,.ush_menu_3.type_mobile .w-nav-anchor.level_1+.w-nav-arrow{font-size:1.1rem}.ush_menu_3.type_mobile .w-nav-anchor:not(.level_1),.ush_menu_3.type_mobile .w-nav-anchor:not(.level_1)+.w-nav-arrow{font-size:.9rem}@media (min-width:1281px){.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-icon{--icon-size:20px;--icon-size-int:20}}@media (min-width:971px) and (max-width:1280px){.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-icon{--icon-size:32px;--icon-size-int:32}}@media (min-width:901px) and (max-width:970px){.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-icon{--icon-size:20px;--icon-size-int:20}}@media (max-width:900px){.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-icon{--icon-size:20px;--icon-size-int:20}}@media screen and (max-width:766px){.w-nav.type_desktop.ush_menu_3>.w-nav-list.level_1{display:none}.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-control{display:flex}}.no-touch .ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item.level_1.opened>a:not(.w-btn),.no-touch .ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item.level_1:hover>a:not(.w-btn){background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item.level_1.current-menu-item>a:not(.w-btn),.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item.level_1.current-menu-ancestor>a:not(.w-btn),.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item.level_1.current-page-ancestor>a:not(.w-btn){background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .ush_menu_3.type_desktop .w-nav-item.level_1.current-menu-item>a:not(.w-btn),.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .ush_menu_3.type_desktop .w-nav-item.level_1.current-menu-ancestor>a:not(.w-btn),.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .ush_menu_3.type_desktop .w-nav-item.level_1.current-page-ancestor>a:not(.w-btn){background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-transparent-text-hover)}.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-list:not(.level_1){background:var(--color-header-middle-bg);color:var(--color-header-middle-text)}.no-touch .ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1)>a:focus,.no-touch .ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1):hover>a{background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1).current-menu-item>a,.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1).current-menu-ancestor>a,.ush_menu_3 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1).current-page-ancestor>a{background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}.ush_menu_2.type_desktop{--menu-items-gap:20px}.ush_menu_2.type_desktop .menu-item:not(.level_1){font-size:1rem}.ush_menu_2.type_mobile .w-nav-anchor.level_1,.ush_menu_2.type_mobile .w-nav-anchor.level_1+.w-nav-arrow{font-size:1.1rem}.ush_menu_2.type_mobile .w-nav-anchor:not(.level_1),.ush_menu_2.type_mobile .w-nav-anchor:not(.level_1)+.w-nav-arrow{font-size:.9rem}@media (min-width:1281px){.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-icon{--icon-size:24px;--icon-size-int:24}}@media (min-width:971px) and (max-width:1280px){.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-icon{--icon-size:32px;--icon-size-int:32}}@media (min-width:901px) and (max-width:970px){.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-icon{--icon-size:24px;--icon-size-int:24}}@media (max-width:900px){.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-icon{--icon-size:24px;--icon-size-int:24}}@media screen and (max-width:969px){.w-nav.type_desktop.ush_menu_2>.w-nav-list.level_1{display:none}.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-control{display:flex}}.no-touch .ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item.level_1.opened>a:not(.w-btn),.no-touch .ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item.level_1:hover>a:not(.w-btn){background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item.level_1.current-menu-item>a:not(.w-btn),.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item.level_1.current-menu-ancestor>a:not(.w-btn),.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item.level_1.current-page-ancestor>a:not(.w-btn){background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .ush_menu_2.type_desktop .w-nav-item.level_1.current-menu-item>a:not(.w-btn),.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .ush_menu_2.type_desktop .w-nav-item.level_1.current-menu-ancestor>a:not(.w-btn),.l-header.bg_transparent:not(.sticky) .ush_menu_2.type_desktop .w-nav-item.level_1.current-page-ancestor>a:not(.w-btn){background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-transparent-text-hover)}.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-list:not(.level_1){background:var(--color-header-middle-bg);color:var(--color-header-middle-text)}.no-touch .ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1)>a:focus,.no-touch .ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1):hover>a{background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1).current-menu-item>a,.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1).current-menu-ancestor>a,.ush_menu_2 .w-nav-item:not(.level_1).current-page-ancestor>a{background:transparent;color:var(--color-header-middle-text-hover)}@media (min-width:1281px){.ush_search_1.layout_simple{max-width:240px}.ush_search_1.layout_modern.active{width:240px}.ush_search_1{font-size:18px}}@media (min-width:971px) and (max-width:1280px){.ush_search_1.layout_simple{max-width:250px}.ush_search_1.layout_modern.active{width:250px}.ush_search_1{font-size:24px}}@media (min-width:901px) and (max-width:970px){.ush_search_1.layout_simple{max-width:200px}.ush_search_1.layout_modern.active{width:200px}.ush_search_1{font-size:18px}}@media (max-width:900px){.ush_search_1{font-size:18px}}@media (min-width:601px) and (max-width:900px){.ush_menu_3{font-size:.9rem !important}}.us_custom_dfe4a1ab{max-width:1400px !important;padding-top:1.1rem !important}.us_custom_0c47a81b{text-align:center !important;font-family:var(--font-family) !important;font-size:1rem !important;margin-top:1rem !important;margin-bottom:1rem !important}.us_custom_82a09314{max-width:90% !important}.us_custom_c8ce0658{color:var(--color-header-middle-text) !important;background:var(--color-header-middle-bg) !important;padding:1rem 1.5rem 1rem 1.5rem !important;border:1px solid var(--color-content-border) !important}.us_custom_68905004{margin-top:1rem !important;margin-bottom:1rem !important}.us_custom_6b565733{color:#fff !important;background:var(--color-alt-content-bg) !important}.us_custom_6b4f4b01{color:var(--color-content-primary) !important;font-weight:700 !important;padding-bottom:.5rem !important;border-bottom-width:1px !important;border-color:var(--color-content-primary) !important;border-bottom-style:solid !important}.us_custom_fb1528c0{margin-top:1.5rem !important;margin-bottom:1.5rem !important}.us_custom_70facfb4{margin-bottom:1.5rem !important}.us_custom_1e0e9307{font-size:18px !important}.us_custom_dc0399e3{padding-top:.5rem !important;padding-bottom:.5rem !important;background:var(--color-footer-bg-alt) no-repeat left top/cover !important}.us_custom_968fe4ef{color:#fff !important;text-transform:uppercase !important;font-size:.8rem !important}form.w-filter.us_custom_68905004.layout_ver.items_2.state_mobile{text-align:center}a.w-filter-item-title{font-family:aktiv-grotesk-extended,sans-serif;text-transform:uppercase}@media screen and (max-width:900px){h5.w-filter-list-title{display:none !important}}@media (max-width:900px){#us_grid_1{--columns:2 !important}}@media (max-width:600px){#us_grid_1{--columns:1 !important}}.layout_2045076 .w-grid-item-h{}.layout_2045076 .usg_post_title_1{transition-duration:.1s;transform-origin:50% 50%;transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%)}.layout_2045076 .w-grid-item-h:focus-within .usg_post_title_1,.layout_2045076 .w-grid-item-h:hover .usg_post_title_1{transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%);opacity:1;color:#fff !important}.layout_2045076 .usg_post_date_1{transition-duration:.3s;transform-origin:50% 50%;transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%)}.layout_2045076 .w-grid-item-h:focus-within .usg_post_date_1,.layout_2045076 .w-grid-item-h:hover .usg_post_date_1{transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%);opacity:1;color:#fff !important}.layout_2045076 .usg_post_title_1{color:#fff !important;font-weight:500 !important;font-size:1rem !important;padding-top:0 !important;padding-bottom:0 !important}.layout_2045076 .usg_post_date_1{color:var(--color-content-faded) !important;text-transform:uppercase !important;font-size:.9rem !important}.layout_2045076 .usg_vwrapper_1{padding:1% 3% 1% 3% !important}@media (max-width:900px){#us_grid_2{--columns:2 !important}}@media (max-width:600px){#us_grid_2{--columns:1 !important}}.layout_2045541 .w-grid-item-h{}.layout_2045541 .usg_hwrapper_1{transition-duration:.3s;transform-origin:50% 50%;transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%)}.layout_2045541 .w-grid-item-h:focus-within .usg_hwrapper_1,.layout_2045541 .w-grid-item-h:hover .usg_hwrapper_1{transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%);opacity:1}.layout_2045541 .usg_hwrapper_1{height:55px !important;border-bottom-width:2px !important;border-color:var(--color-content-primary) !important;border-bottom-style:solid !important}.layout_2045541 .usg_post_custom_field_1{text-align:center !important}.layout_2045541 .usg_post_title_1{color:#fff !important;text-align:left !important;font-size:1rem !important}@media (min-width:601px) and (max-width:900px){.layout_2045541 .usg_post_title_1{color:#fff !important;text-align:center !important;font-size:1rem !important}}@media (max-width:600px){.layout_2045541 .usg_post_title_1{color:#fff !important;text-align:center !important;font-size:1rem !important}}.layout_2045548 .w-grid-item-h{}.layout_2045548 .usg_post_custom_field_1{text-align:center !important}.layout_2045548 .usg_post_title_1{color:#fff !important;text-align:center !important;font-size:.6rem !important}.layout_2045548 .usg_vwrapper_1{padding:.8rem !important}@media ( max-width:900px ){.w-filter.state_desktop .w-filter-list,.w-filter-item-title>span{display:none}.w-filter-opener{display:inline-block}}@media (max-width:600px){#us_grid_4{--columns:1 !important}}.layout_2045523 .w-grid-item-h{background:var(--color-content-bg);color:var(--color-content-text);border-radius:0rem}.layout_2045523 .usg_post_title_1{transition-duration:.3s;transform-origin:50% 50%;transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%)}.layout_2045523 .w-grid-item-h:focus-within .usg_post_title_1,.layout_2045523 .w-grid-item-h:hover .usg_post_title_1{transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%);opacity:1;color:var(--color-content-link) !important}.layout_2045523 .usg_vwrapper_1{transition-duration:.3s;transform-origin:50% 50%;transform:scale(1) translate(0%,0%)}.layout_2045523 .w-grid-item-h:focus-within .usg_vwrapper_1,.layout_2045523 .w-grid-item-h:hover .usg_vwrapper_1{transform:scale(1) translate(0%,-3%);opacity:1}@media (max-width:899px){.layout_2045523 .usg_post_content_1{display:none !important}}.layout_2045523 .usg_post_title_1{font-weight:700 !important;font-size:1.2rem !important}.layout_2045523 .usg_vwrapper_1{position:static !important;padding:1rem 1rem 1.3rem 1.3rem !important}.layout_2045523 .usg_post_taxonomy_1{font-weight:700 !important;text-transform:uppercase !important;font-size:10px !important;margin-bottom:1rem !important}.layout_2045523 .usg_post_date_1{font-weight:400 !important;text-transform:uppercase !important}.layout_2045523 .usg_post_author_1{font-weight:400 !important;text-transform:uppercase !important;line-height:1.2 !important}.layout_2045523 .usg_vwrapper_2{padding:1rem !important;border:1px solid var(--color-content-border) !important}.layout_2045523 .usg_post_content_1{font-family:var(--font-family) !important;text-transform:none !important}.layout_2045523 .usg_vwrapper_3{color:var(--color-content-faded) !important}@media (max-width:600px){.layout_2045523 .usg_post_title_1{font-size:1.2rem !important}}@media ( max-width:600px ){.w-filter.state_desktop .w-filter-list,.w-filter-item-title>span{display:none}.w-filter-opener{display:inline-block}}footer#page-footer p,span{font-family:aktiv-grotesk-extended,sans-serif;font-weight:400;text-transform:uppercase}footer#page-footer a:not(.w-socials-item-link){text-decoration:underline}footer#page-footer h4{border-bottom-color:#4e4e4e;box-shadow:inset 0 -6px #4e4e4e;font-weight:inherit;display:table;font-size:16px}.w-socials-item-link{border:2px solid white !important;line-height:3rem}ul#menu-footer-menu{column-count:2}ul#menu-footer-menu li{font-family:aktiv-grotesk-extended,sans-serif;text-transform:uppercase}@media ( max-width:600px ){.us_menu_1 .menu{display:block !important}.us_menu_1 .menu>li:not(:last-child){margin:0 0 var(--main-gap,1.5rem) !important}}#ancr-2050504{background:#0d0d0d;color:#fff !important;box-shadow:0 2px 4px -2px rgba(0,0,0,.5);box-shadow:0 -2px 4px -2px rgba(0,0,0,.5)}#ancr-2050504 .ancr-btn-primary{background:#fff;color:#000 !important;box-shadow:0 2px 4px -2px rgba(0,0,0,.5)}#ancr-2050504 .ancr-btn-secondary{background:#f9df74;color:#000 !important;box-shadow:0 2px 4px -2px rgba(0,0,0,.5)}#ancr-2050504 .ancr-container{max-width:1000px}#ancr-2050504 .ancr-content a{color:#fff}

DISCOVER THE LATEST IN TECH POLICY

Michael McConnell on Winning the Tariff Case and the Fate of Humphrey’s Executor

BROADBAND INFRASTRUCTURE IN TRIBAL AREAS (2015–2025)

Caveat Promptor: A Case Study of Tribal Land Descriptions

EXPLORE OUR RESEARCH TOPICS

Antitrust and Competition

Artificial Intelligence

Broadband

Content Moderation

Economics and Methods

Free Speech

Evidence-Based Policy

Intellectual Property

Privacy and Security

Miscellaneous

Antitrust and Competition

Broadband

Content Moderation

Economics and Methods

Economics of Digitization

Evidence-Based Policy

Intellectual Property

Miscellaneous

Privacy and Security

All Publications

Shut Down the Federal Communications Commission

Preserving the Bottom Rung: How We Can Protect Experiential Learning in the AI Era

Tariffs Imperil America’s Service Economy

You’re Fired: How Direct Presidential Control Makes the FTC Redundant

Agency Independence and Humphrey’s Executor: William Kovacic and Jon Nuechterlein on Two Think Minimum

Trump’s tariffs also threaten US innovation

Starlink and DOGE: The $42 Billion Conflict of Interest in Rural Broadband

DOGE Should Focus On Wasted Federal Spectrum

Spectrum Policy 2025: Insights from TPI’s Winter Series

International Spectrum Leadership: Key takeaways

Refine Your Search

Get The Latest In Your Inbox

Connect with Us

Sign Up For Updates

Sign Up for Updates